Class 144 (Locobase 8170)

Data from the NWP 10 - 1950 Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. Information on the provenance of the locomotive from [], a Northwestern Pacific roster by John Barnhill, Jr, last accessed 22 September 2007.

144 was a handsome-looking pocket Ten-wheeler with good proportions that was delivered to the South Pacific Coast Railroad in 1887 (see Locobase 11847).

When the SPC was taken into the Northwestern Pacific, the NWP renumbered the 20 twice. The diagram book shows that the engine received a new boiler after the transfer that had fewer tubes and a smaller grate in the firebox. But the stroke was lengthened and the boiler was pressed to higher degree, so the resulting engine showed more power.

In December 1935, the NWP sold this engine to the Southern Illinois Coal Company.

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Class 3 / E-8 (Locobase 898)

Data from [] roster listing (7 Feb 2004) and from 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagrams book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. See also DeGolyer, Volume 16, p. 129. Works numbers were 11265 and 11280.

The 3 passed to the Northern Pacific in 1902, while the 4 went to the Seattle & Northern in 1898, and thence to the Columbia & Puget Sound Railroad.

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface.

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Class E (Locobase 891)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] (7 Feb 2004). See also DeGolyer, Volume 11, p. 94 and Volume 12, p. 3. Works numbers were 6392 and 6394 in September 1882, 6481-6482 in November 1882, 6553-6554 in January 1883, 7005-7006 in October 1883, and 7021 in November 1883.

Locobase's review of the Baldwin spec books reveals many instances in which the field rep submitting a follow-up order demanded heavier springs, usually quoting something like the following complaint from the NP dated 16 February 1883: "The springs sent with the 10 wheel engines did not hold up, especially the engine truck springs; quite a number have failed." Another note advises Baldwin to "see about using 26" wheels [in the engine truck] hereafter to clear main frames."

All of the Ten-wheelers in this class pursued their freight duties for over 30 years before being scrapped. Of those, 391 was scrapped only in 1920 and 392 worked for almost exactly 40 years before being scrapped in January 1922.

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Class E-1 (Locobase 892)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] (7 Feb 2004) and from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange.

Locobase found that the NP diagrams as well as a set of the NP Locomotive Cards repeated the "total equivalent" heating surface area. But given the count, length, and diameter of the 223 boiler tubes and their combined 1,581 sq ft (146.88 sq m) of heating surface area, the total figure leaves a unlikely maximum of 54 sq ft (5.02 sq m) for the firebox. Thus, only the tube heating surface area seems valid.

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Class E-2 (Locobase 893)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] (7 Feb 2004) from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. See also DeGolyer, Volume 14, p. 222. Works numbers were 9691-9704 in December 1888.

The evaporative heating surface areas given in the DeGolyer specifications overstate the actual figures considerably. The information was entered after the fact and may simply have been written on the wrong spec. Tube heating surface area is overstated by 445 sq ft. Firebox heating surface area is given as 172 sq ft; based on the slightly later E-3 (Locobase 895) numbers found in a later DeGolyer entry, Locobase estimates that the firebox area was no more than 140 sq ft.

The 1944 diagram reflects a rebuild and shows 219 2" tubes, but understates the tube heating surface area that results from such an installation.

All but one of this class was scrapped by the Northern Pacific in the 1920. The lone exception was 374, which was sold to the short-line Wyoming Railway in 1916 and renumbered 102. The WR connected the towns of Clearmont (Sheridan County) and Buffalo (Johnson County, which lay 28 miles away, and supported coal mining and ranching. It was known locally as the Buffalo, Clearmont & Back - Maybe. From 1911 to 1946, the WR operated independently, then a long battle with bankruptcy led to its abandonment in 1952.

Some time later it appeared on the Alaska Central (south of Fairbanks) as their #4.

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Class E-3 (Locobase 895)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] (7 Feb 2004), supplemented by DeGolyer, Volume 15, p. 147. 600-614 were produced in August 1889 as Baldwin works numbers 10182-10186, 10191-10198, 10200-10201. 615-617 followed in September 1890 (works numbers 11227-11228, 11234) and 618-628 completed the class in October (works numbers 11235, 11246, 11248, 11253, 11273, 11286-11287, 11291, 11294, 11299, 11301).

349 (ex-620) was sold to the Billings & Central Montana in April 1920 for another seven years of service before being scrapped in April 1927.

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Class E-4/E-6 (Locobase 896)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] (7 February 2004). Works numbers were 2337, 2432-2433 in 1890.

The diagram refers to engine numbers 310-311, but all the information matches up. The E-6 diagram on NP TO 1944 Locomotive Diagrams shows that the 365 (originally 299) was identical, but was pressed to 145 psi.

Six years after their arrival on the SLS&E, these Ten-wheelers survived the 1896 reorganization that pieced out the railroad by going to work on successor Seattle & International west of the Cascades.

388 was later sold to Inland Empire Paper Company.

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Class E-5 (Locobase 900)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] (7 Feb 2004) and from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange.

The shorter driver wheelbase is an indication, confirmed by the diagram, that the firebox now rode above the rear two axles rather than between it. As a result, the inside firebox length jumped 30% from approximately 78" to 102"

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface.

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Class E-7 (Locobase 899)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] 7 Feb 2004). Works numbers were 2223-2225 in 1892.

The Monte Cristo was a railway that connected a gold-rush town with the Northern Pacific at Everett. An account on [] (accessed 4 February 2007) relates the railway's short history. Although advanced by Everett's founders and partially underwritten by John D Rockefeller, the railroad suffered from the unfamiliarity of its distinguished parentage with local conditions: "Long time residents of the area warned the railroad's surveyors of the river's capacity for sudden and violent flooding. They ignored the advice, dismissing the river as a 'little trout stream'. Words they'd soon regret. Three bridges and six tunnels in lower Robe Canyon were completed by November 1892, just in time for the largest storm in 20 years.

The storm washed out the grade at many locations, and covered it with landslides in others. The Railway's board of directors dismissed the storm as a 100 year storm and ordered the line repaired, beginning a pattern that would repeat itself continually for the next 40 years. The decision of the board of directors of the railway to route the railroad through the lower 5 miles of the canyon is acknowledged as their greatest blunder."

Combined with the low quality of the gold deposits, this vulnerability to nature's wrath meant the E&MC would have a short life. The NP took it over in late 1902 and renumbered these three small Ten-wheelers. It was less enamored of the railway and sold it to the Rucker brothers, who ran a sawmill and whose equipment accelerated the line's deterioration. By the late 20s, the line was effectively abandoned; its rails were pulled up in 1936 and sold to Japan.

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface.

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Class P - simple (Locobase 901)

Data from NP Locomotive Cards pdf supplied in August 2013 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange collection. See also Paul T Hobbs's compilation Locomotive Diagrams SP&S RY (Vancouver, WA: Vintage Ads - North America, 2011), emailed to Locobase 14 January 2020. Works numbers were 4543 in April 1897, 4703-4710 in February 1898.

Ps were delivered in two batches of eight -- one set worked compound (Locobase 3283), the other simple expansion. The latter is shown here. Firebox heating surface area includes 29 sq ft (2.69 sq m) of arch tubes added some time after their delivery.

Fourteen years after their delivery, 251, 257-258 were turned over to the newly formed Spokane, Porttland & Seattle in 1911. None of these was ever superheated; 257 was scrapped in mid-1938, 258 in August 1938, and 251 in March 1941.

The other five were superheated in the 1920s; see Locobase 6560.

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Class P-1 - compound (Locobase 906)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. 209-212 were produced first in 1899 (works numbers 5122-5125) followed by 213-218 (5710-5715) in 1900, and completed by 207-208 (5930-5931) in 1901.

This set of twelve engines were delivered as shown, two-cylinder cross compounds, in company with an almost equal number of simple-expansion engines of the same design (see Locobase 8157). All of them had relatively tall drivers and big boilers.

They were later simpled with two 20" x 26" cylinders (see Locobase 8158). Four were later upgraded with superheaters; see Locobase 6560.

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Class P-1 - simple (Locobase 8158)

Data from a NP 1 - 1929 Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. As stand-alone Schenectady Locomotive Works, the builder delivered 229-232 arrived in 1899 (works numbers 5118-5121) with 233-236 in 1901 (works numbers 5932-5935). Once Schenectady joined Alco in 1901, its works numbers for 226-228 in 1902 were 25660-25661, 25841.

At the same time as the NP was taking delivery of the P-1 express passenger Ten-wheelers as cross-compounds (Locobase 906), it was purchasing the same design as simple-expansion locomotives and taking delivery of some of each as several batches.

Some were later superheated; see Locobase 6560.

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Class P-2 - compound (Locobase 8155)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. Works numbers were 5716-5717 in December 1900, 5926-5929 in May 1901 and, after Schenectady joined several other builders in the American Locomotive Company, 25657-25659, 25842 in March 1902.

This is the original configuration for this decade of engines that formed part of a series of cross-compound Ten-wheelers.

Seven were later simpled; see Locobase

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Class P-2 - simpled (Locobase 907)

Data from NP Locomotive Data Cards supplied in August 2013 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange collection and Baird-Northern Pacific Roster supplied by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange collection.

Locobase 8155 shows this class as cross-compounds with one 22" HP and 34" LP cylinder each and delivered in 1901. In 1912, a little later than most North American railroads in modifying compounds, the shops started fitting two simple-expansion cylinders, each with a 10" (254 mm) piston valve. The firebox heating surface area included 29 sq ft (2.69 sq m) of arch tubes.

About eight years after the last engine was processed, the NP shops began fitting superheaters to the class; see Locobase 16591.

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Class P-2 - superheated (Locobase 16591)

Data from NP Locomotive Data Cards supplied in August 2013 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange collection.

The Northern Pacific's shops stripped the original P-2 Ten-wheelers described in 8155 of their cross-compound setup and created the P-2 simpled (Locobase 907).

Beginning in 1921, the railroad replaced the original saturated boilers in the same class with new vessels equipped with a new superheater. At the rate of about one per year, the conversion program ended in 1928. The upgrade retained the 10" (254 mm) piston valves, inside link motion, and 29 sq ft (2.69 sq m) of arch tubes in the firebox.

Some of the class survived the surgery for only a few years. 238 was withdrawn in September 1927, 247 in September 1933. 240-241 left in March and June 1935, respectively.

242 withdrew in October 1936 and 248 in December. 246 (February) and 245 (September 1937.

The last to go were 237 in April 1940, 244 in October, and 249 in April 1940.

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Class P-3 (Locobase 910)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. Schenectady delivered 10 in 1901 (works # 5916-5925) and Richmond added 10 in 1902 (works # 25662-25671).

Two Alco builders supplied engines in this class, which was an extension of the P-2 cross-compounds (literally - the fire tubes were a foot longer).

It appears from the 1944 diagram that the Minneapolis & International acquired 2 (road numbers 300-301) and that they were in addition to the 20 that went to the NP.

These cross-compounds were never simpled and only a couple were left on the roster by 1925.

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface.

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Class P-3 (Locobase 8157)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange.

Locobase 910 describes the 20 cross-compound Ten-wheelers of this class that went to the Northern Pacific. In 1901, the Mike & Ike piggy-backed on the Schenectady order and secured two of its own. Like the NP P-3s, these were never simpled.

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface

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Class P/P-1/P-2 - superheated (Locobase 6560)

Data from 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange.

In the mid-1920s, the Northern Pacific superheated four of the P-1 Ten-wheelers that had years before been simpled. (See Locobase 906 for the compound variant, Locobase 8158 for the simple-expansion variant.)

Three P class engines were superheated along identical lines as were four P-2s. (The P-class heating surface is given as 1,802 sq ft and superheater as 390 sq ft, but all other dimensions are the same.). The makeover benefited from its relatively late date as these relatively old locomotives now carried 200-psi boilers of sufficient size to provide plenty of steam, an adequate amount of superheat while retaining the tall drivers.

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Class Rc (Locobase 903)

See "Northern Pacific Ten-Wheel Compound Engine," Locomotive Engineering, Vol X, No. 4 (April 1897), pp. 291-292; "New Locomotives for the Northern Pacific", Railroad Gazette, Volume XXX [30], No 2 (January 1898), p. 24; and NP Locomotive Cards pdf supplied in August 2013 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange collection. Works numbers were 4535-4536, 4564-4571, 4584-4593 in 1897.

Superintendent of Motive Power E M Herr and Schenectady developed this cross-compound design as a means of substantially increasing available power for their freight service. "A distinctive feature of these engines, [sic] lies in the mammoth boilers which furnish a heating surface of nearly 2,900 square feet, and the larger use of steel, cast, forged and stamped in order to keep the weight of details within the minimum ..." The firebox's heating surface included 32.8 sq ft (3.05 sq m) of arch tubes.

LE noted that one of the two test engines developed 1,200 hp while operating as a compound.

Schenectady would increase the stroke by 2"(50.8 mm ) and tweak the tube length and produce this design in quantity two years later; see Locobase 902.

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Class S-10 (Locobase 914)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. Correction on the heating surface data from NP spec card reproduced on [], visited 6 June 2005). See also Larry Doyle's 11 April 2019 description of how to manage the Johnson bar on the 328 in the Trainorders forum discussion at [],4770579, last accessed 26 March 2022. Works numbers were 37575-37584 in February 1912.

Relatively light engines said by some sources to have been intended for the Russian Government (see the Tell Tale article quoted below). In fact, says the Montana Museum, the class came from an order for the newly minted Chicago Southern Railroad. Incorporated in 1904, the railroad ordered 40 locomotives from Rogers. By the end of 1905, however, the project had collapsed and Rogers was left with 14 unclaimed Ten-wheelers. The Northern Pacific snapped up ten of these in early 1907 for $14,500 each to operate on its branch lines.

Most were scrapped in 1929-1922, but the Rush City, Minn to Grantsburg, Wisc branch had a St Croix River bridge that could only bear the weight of a light Consolidation or these light Ten-wheelers. So 321 & 328 operated well into the 1940s. 321 was scrapped in 1946.

Larry Doyle vividly described his technique for managing the potentially crippling forces exerted by the reversing lever (Johnson bar) on the S-10 class 328:

"My solution to that problem on NP 328 was to treat the reverse bar as a 400 lb. dance partner, and not let her take the lead. Just reaching over and gently releasing the latch could easily get you some bruises, and maybe a broken arm. I am not making this up.

Instead, embrace that bar. Treat it like you were hugging it, so the entire mass of your body becomes one with the bar, and it can't hit you or throw you. Plant a foot on the quadrant at where you want to reposition it. Gently squeeze off the latch and let it glide to your left or right by leaning slightly. When you feel it touch your boot release the latch.

YOU'RE running the engine. Don't let the engine run you."

Northern Pacific's Tell Tale magazine of May, 1950 ([], 19 June 2003) drew the following portrait of 328 fifty years after its introduction:

By R. V. Nixon

In this age of Diesel-electric streamliners and fast 125-car freight trains, it is very refreshing to come across a touch of old time railroading, such as exists on the Sixth Sub-division of the Lake Superior Division. Daily except Sunday, a mixed train powered by a small Ten-wheeler, leaves Rush City for the round trip to Grantsburg, Wisc., crossing the St. Croix River on the oldest of N.P. bridges, and traveling on light 56-pound rail. At Grantsburg the engine is turned on one of the few remaining ''Armstrong'' turntables ...

"It is doubtful if such picturesque railroad scenes can be found anywhere at this late stage of the game. Probably they will be short lived as the 328 is due to be dismantled and application has been made for the abandonment of the Grantsburg [B]ranch. An interesting sidelight of the abandonment is the fact that Brakeman Jack Murray, whose father rode the first train over the branch 67 years ago, will probably work on the last run ...

"...The 328 was one of ten small 4-6-0s built by Rogers in 1907. The order was placed rather mysteriously by an agent of a foreign country, supposedly for service in Russia or Manchuria. Upon completion the locomotives were refused for some unknown reason and were purchased by the N.P. for use on branch lines.

"Most of the S-10s worked in the vicinity of Fargo, although the 325 and 326 were familiar sights on the Alder, Pony and Norris branches."

Nixon concluded: "All have been scrapped except the 328 - which will itself soon be railroad history.

Nxon later reported:

" And that isn't all! Remember our May issue of the Tell Tale where we mourned the passing of Northern Pacific 328? As expected, the 328 was taken to Brainerd for dismantling. To use the words of one of our colleagues, ''The torch was so close the paint was scorching!''

Instead, said Nixon, the Minnesota Railfans Association persuaded the NP to donate 328 to Stillwater. Later it pulled excursion trains in Stillwater (1987-1991) and on the Osceola & St Croix Valley Railway (1992-1999).

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Class S-11 (Locobase 894)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. See also Glenn Laubaugh and Ron McCoy, The Northern Pacific on the Pacific Northwest Chapter of the National Railway Historical Society website at [], last accessed 1 February 2024. Grant's works were1766-1768 (?) in 1888.

These Ten-wheelers opened the roster for the W&CR in 1888. The W&CR was created when the Oregon & Washington Territory, formed in 1886, ran short of funds. Laubaugh and McCoy spell out how the W&CR solidified control of some eastern Washington rail lines.

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface.

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Class S-1c (Locobase 9542)

Data from "Heavy Compound for Northern Pacific," Railway and Locomotive Engineering, December 1899, p.543 and "Schenectady Locomotives for the Northern Pacific", Railway Age, Volume 28, No 13 (8 December 1899), p. 909. Works numbers were 5134-5147 in 1899.

The article notes that this batch from Schenectady differed from earlier engines (Locobase 902) in having a piston valve servicing the high-pressure cylinder and that the change led them to "...handle much easier [sic] than the slide-valve engine." In addition to the usual assurances that these engines performed satisfactorily, the RA report observes that the HP cylinder is fed through a piston valve, "the advantage of which arrangement has become apparent in the ease of handling and the decreased strain upon the valve gear. We are informed, "the report continues,"that this is quite noticeable as compared to the slide valve."

The article does not mention two other differences: a 2" (50.8 mm) increase in piston stroke, and a 4" (101.6 mm) extension in tube length.

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Class S-2 (Locobase 908)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. Works numbers were 5473-5482 (road 122-131) and 5593-5612 (road 104-121).

Continuation of the definitive cross-compound design that began with the S-1 class (Locobase 9542) in 1899. Principal difference was an increase in weight.

Most were scrapped in the mid-1920s.

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Class S-3 (Locobase 911)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. Schenectady works numbers were 5710-5715 in 1901 and 25650-25656 in 1902. Richmond's works numbers were 25833-25840 in 1902.

Like the P-3, the S-3 was an enlargement of the basic cross-compound Ten-wheeler (Locobases 902, 9542) bought in relatively large numbers at the turn of the century. There was only a slight increase in the length of the tubes and the number in the boiler. The grate, on the other hand, was half again as ...er ...great in area, chiefly because it was shallower toward the back and mounted above the drivers rather than between them. This allowed 30" increase in the width of the grate.

Like the earlier engines in this series, these cross-compounds were never simpled or superheated and most were scrapped by the end of the 1920s. 1310, 1316-1317 and 1319 were broken up in 1934.

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface.

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Class S-4 - compound (Locobase 905)

Data from a 1944 Northern Pacific Locomotive Diagram book supplied in May 2005 by Allen Stanley from his extensive Rail Data Exchange. See also DeGolyer, Volume 24, p. 244. Works numbers were 20273-20277, 20308-20309, 20366-20369 in April 1902; 20401-20403, 20421, 20456-20457, 20468-20472, 20497-20499 in May 1902; 20538-20540, 20557-20560, 20596-20599, 20621 in June; 20660-20662 in July.

Finishing off the legion of compound Ten-wheelers supplied to the railroad at the turn of the century, the NP went to a new builder and signed up for 40 of its four-cylinder Vauclain compounds. Few Vauclain compounds had strokes as long as 30 inches, but clearly that was an NP preference; each of the cylinder pairs (1 HP and 1 LP) was served by a single 13" (331 mm) piston valve.

AThe firebox heating surface included 28.46 sq ft (2.65 sq m) of arch tubes.

Unlike the cross-compounds delivered by Schenectady in previous years, the Baldwins were soon simpled and many later superheated. See Locobase 912.

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Class S-4 - simpled (Locobase 912)

Data confirmed by locomotive diagrams from 1900 hosted on [] (7 Feb 2004).

These were the simple-expansion and superheated modifications to the Vauclain compounds that first appeared in 1902 (See Locobase 905). Drury (1993) says simply that these were the Northern Pacific's "best-known Ten-Wheelers." They were originally mountain-based passenger haulers (note the driver diameter), but "later were all-purpose engines: branchline, pusher, local freight, local passenger."

Many had 50-year careers, after which four were donated for display in Pasco (Wash - 1354), Missoula (Mont - 1356), Tacoma (Wash - 1364), and Helena (Mont - 1382).

NB: The direct heating surface (including the firebox heating surface) is an estimate calculated by subtracting the calculated tube heating surface from the reported total evaporative heating surface.

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Class Sc (Locobase 902)

Data from "Heavy Compound for Northern Pacific," Railway and Locomotive Engineering, Volume 12, No 12 (December 1899), p.543. Works numbers were 4727-4734 in April 1898 (road 160-167), 4788 (road 168) in May, and 4893-4899 in October-December.

Based on the Rc class of a year earlier (Locobases 903 and 3283), this design differed chiefly in having a stroke of 2" (50.8 mm) greater length, which increased tractive effort and boiler tubes lengthened by 4" (102.6 mm). Unlike later NP compound Ten-wheelers, this class was never simpled. Instead they were scrapped in the 1920s.